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| A origem dos Godos. |
| quinta-feira, maio 25, 2006 |
Frederik Kortlandt
Traducción: Aliança da Aguia Visigoda Brasil
Frederik Kortlandt Witold Mańczak argumenta que o gótico é mais
próximo ao alemão da Alta Alemanha que a Media Alemanha, mais
próximo ao Alto Alemão que ao Baixo Alemão, mais próxima ao Danes do
que ao Sueco, e que a terra original dos godos deve portanto
localizar-se na parte sul da Alemanha e não na Escandinávia.
Eu acho que seu argumento é correto, e é tempo de abandonar a
clássica visão de Jordanes de que os godos vieram da Escandinávia.
Devemos pensar melhor o assunto para adotar um posicionamento
posterior, e as razões porque isso tem permanecido popular.
A reconstrução da história gótica, e o valor histórico da Gética de
Jordanes tem sido analisado em detalhe por Peter Heather, como ele
assinala com respeito à fonte literária primária: Duas
características têm fato central para a reconstrução histórica
moderna.
Primeiro, ela abrange toda extensão da história gótica [...]
Segundo, existe uma origem gótica de uma parte do material da
Gética, o qual a faz única entre as fontes sobreviventes.
O trabalho de Jordanes' se arrasta pesadamente sobre as histórias
Góticas perdidas de Ablabius e de Cassiodorus, que "ao parecer
teriam sido empregados das dinastias Góticas e teriam produzido
história Gótica do tipo que seus empregadores desejavam ouvir"
(Heather 1991:67).
A respeito da origem dos Godos e de seus vizinhos, as migrações
Góticas e os grandes reis do passado, a história oral é a fonte mais
provável dos relatos. Este material deve conseqüentemente ser
manipulado com um cuidado particular: "A história oral não é
inalterável, mas reflete configurações sociais atuais; como estas
mudam, deve mudar assim a memória coletiva" (Heather 1991:62).
Parece que Jordanes soube de diversos contos alternativos da
história Gótica primordial, e o Heather finaliza (1991: 66): "Havia
assim mais de uma versão das origens Góticas atuais no sexto
século".
Jordanes, como vimos, fez sua escolha porque encontrou escrita a
confirmação dela, mas esta é duramente autoritária: a origem
escandinava dos Godos pareceria ter sido uma suposição do sexto-
século entre os diversos. É também impressionante que todas as
variantes de Jordanes' contiveram ilhas: Escandinávia, Grã Bretanha,
ou algum outro console.
Em um cabo da tradição geográfica e etnográfica greco-romana, Grã
Bretanha, Thule, e Escandinávia são todas misteriosas ilhas
nórdicas, antes que localizações geográficas. Grãs Bretanha e
Escandinávia bem podem representar deduções interpretativas em
um
lugar daquilo que registraram os mitos
Os próprios mitos referidos talvez foram a uma inominada e
misteriosa ilha, que o registrador teve logo que identificar.
O conto de origem escandinavo então seria similar a muitos outros na
Getica, dependendo de uma complexa mistura de material proveniente
das fontes orais góticas e das fontes literárias greco-romanas.
Se sustentarmos a continuidade entre os gutões bálticos dos séculos
I e II com os godos pónticos dos séculos III e IV, isto somente
reflete a tradição dos clãs governantes (cf. Wólfram 1979: 6-7).
A evidência histórica sugere que os godos escandinavos vieram,
maiormente do sul através do mar Báltico, do que seguindo outro
caminho (cf. Hachmann 1970: 454-457 y 456).
O nome lituano Gudai bielorrusos<*-dh- não tem nada a ver com os
godos, senão, que deve ser derivado do prussiano gudde ¨bosques¨,
como os toponimics polacos Gdansk y Gdynia (cf. Fraenkel 1950: 64).
Não existe evidencia arqueológica para uma migração de grande escala
dos godos procedentes do Báltico ao Mar Negro (cf. Heather 1991: 6 y
Hachmann 1970: 467).
Existem muitas razões do por que uma migração deste tipo é altamente
improvável. Primeiro de tudo, existe uma clara descontinuidade entre
a cultura Przeworsk na Polônia e a cultura Chernjahov na Ucrânia, as
quais são identificadas com os godos antes e depois da migração,
respectivamente (ver o mapa de Green 1998:xiv).
A única razão para asumir que os godos seguiram os rios Bugs ou San
e Dniester é que "o terreno não oferece muitas alternativas entre um
ponto de partida comum e uma meta compartida"(Green 1998: 166).
Em segundo lugar, o território entre estas áreas ao norte dos
Cárpatos é precisamente a pátria dos eslavos, que não parece terem
se agitado antes da chegada dos hunos no séc. IV.
Isto dificilmente pode ser reconciliado com uma migração maior dos
godos através do seu território.
Em terceiro lugar, a exposição periódica e as fortes tensões nas
frágeis comunidades fronteiriças da estepe, prontas para movimentos
de povoamento para o oeste, para áreas de condições climáticas mais
estáveis.
Uma imigração dos godos para o leste, partindo das mais altas terras
boscosas para as mais pobres terras baixas da estepe, seria um
tanto desmotivada como difícil de realizar por conta das forças
naturais que podem ser enumeradas.
Em quarto lugar, a direção esperada de uma migração é para áreas
mais desenvolvidas onde a vida prometa ser melhor, o que no presente
contexto significa para a fronteira mais próxima ao Império Romano.
Esperaríamos que os godos, em conseqüência se movessem para o sul
através da porta Moraviana ao Danúbio, tal como fizeram os eslavos
poucos séculos depois.
Em quinto lugar, existe pouca razão para assumir que os godos
conduziram-se em forma diferente dos Burgundios, Vândalos,
Marcomanos e Longobardos, todos os quais cruzaram o Danúbio superior
em alguma etapa.
Consecuentemente me parece probable que os godos históricos
seguiram o curso da corrente do Danúbio e entraram na Ucrânia a
partir do sudoeste.
Os gépidos podem haver retardado nesta viajem, a qual conta para a
etimologia de seu nome segundo Jordanes (cf. Heather 1991: 5).
Juntando as peças, eu creio que a cadeia mais provável de
acontecimentos é a seguinte.
Os gutões, como seus irmãos germânicos orientais, se moveram ao sul
para a Itália e as riquezas do Império Romano até que alcançaram as
ribeiras do Danúbio.
 el cid, o campeador
Eles podem ter adotado o idioma das tribos Alamanis que haviam
cegado ali vindos do oeste, onde estiveram em estreito contato com
os romanos por um longo período de tempo.
É possível que a etnogenia gótica tomou lugar realmente na Baixa
Áustria quando as tribos germânicas orientais vindas do norte se
encontraram com as tribos germânicas ocidentais vindas do oeste, e,
sendo proibidas de penetrar no império romano em grandes
quantidades, uniram forças na busca de um lugar para atravessar o
Danúbio inferior. Este cenário está bem motivado em termos de
pressões e atrações.
Aclara a origem sulina do idioma gótico e o torna compatível com a
origem nórdica do nome.
A gotização de um amplo numero de godos não foi causada pelo
predomínio dos verdadeiros godos(Heather 1991: 327), e sim pela
ausência de diferenças lingüísticas maiores entre as tribos
germânicas do séc. II.
Simplesmente é de se esperar que o dialeto germânico, mas
prestigioso foi falado próximo à fronteira do Império Romano e
amplamente adotado por aqueles que iam chegando.
A maioria gótica não existiu no principio, porém chegou a ser como
um resultado do processo de assimilação, tal como os grupos se
adotaram um ao outro.
O cenário delineado aqui tem a vantagem adicional de tomar em conta
certa quantidade de características particulares do idioma gótico em
comparação com os seus equivalentes mais próximos.
A fonologia gótica relembra mais do latim e do romance que dos
outros idiomas germânicos.
Mesmo que a língua gótica é mais arcaica que sua irmãs, sua
morfologia parece haver sido regularizada em uma ampla extensão.
O sufixo latino - arius foi evidentemente produtivo no gótico:
bokareis `escrita', laisareis `professor', liuþareis `cantor',
motareis `cobrador', sokareis `combatente'. as palavras góticas
siponeis `discípulo', kelikn `torre', alew `azeite', lukarn
`lámpada', foram provavelmente tomadas dos celtas na Moravia (cf.
Green 1998: 156-158), o qual explica sua limitada distribuição nos
idiomas germânicos.
A palavra para vinhedo tem particular interesse já que tem sete
diferentes variantes em germânico (cf. Wollmann 1990: 526-542):
1. Gótico aket, akeit;
2. Suiço Alemão (Wallis) achiss;
3. Médio Baixo Alemão ezzih;
4. Médio Holandés edic;
5. Antigo Inglês eced, Antigo Saxão ekid;
6. Islands edic, Sueco ättika,
Os quais aparentemente foram tomados do Baixo Alemão. É claro que a
palavra gótica veio do alamánico no primeiro séc. antes que a
vinicultura se estendesse ao Palatinado e ao médio Rin no séc. II
(cf. Wollmann 1990:540).
As palavras Kreks grego e o dativo plural marikreitum pérolas também
delatam a influencia de um dialeto germânico superior sen obstruções
sonoros (cf. Kortlandt 1998: 9).
Además, as palavras gregas aparecem em gótico usualmente em suas
formas latinas (cf. especialmente Jellinek 1926: 179-183 y 188-194),
o que aponta a uma origem ocidental dos godos, por exemplo,
aipistula `carta' (porém aipistaule `epístola paulina'), drakma
`dracma', paurpura `púrpura', genitivo singular sinapis `mostarda',
dativo plural Rumonim `romanos', Saurim `sírios', também aikklesjo
`congregação', aiwaggeljo `evangélio', aiwaggelista `evangelista',
diabulus `diabo' (porém diabaulus em São João), Marja `María' (porém
Maria em São Lucas), y Iesus Xristus.
Parece que o genitivo plural skaurpjono `escorpiões' quase satisfaz
para mostrar que os godos entraram aos Bálcãs vindos do oeste, e não
desde do norte.
Mais importante é que as raízes gregas - ou estão infectadas como
raízes - ou em gótico, por exemplo, Iudaius `judeu', genitivo
singular - aus, dativo plural -um, acusativo plural - uns, porém
como as raízes - i no nominativo plural Iudaieis, genitivo plural -
e (Jellinek 1926: 108), o qual só pode ser explicado por transmissão
latina.
Outras peças de evidência são empréstimos culturais como aurali
`guardanapo' e kubitus `deitado (em companhia) em uma comida' e
traduções de empréstimos, como armahairtei `misericórdia', as quais
foram tomadas do latim orarium, cubitus, misericordia, não desde
seus equivalentes gregos.
O ponto final será assinalado:
As palavras bálticas tomadas do gótico foram transmitidas através do
eslavo (cf. Stender-Petersen 1927: 134 y Green 1998: 172-174), o
qual sugere que os bálticos nunca tiveram contato direto com os
godos senão que estiveram separados deles pelos eslavos.
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Make ringtone for iPhone and put ringtones on iPhone without iTunes
There are only a few ringtones in a newly purchased iPhone, while most of us want to make unique and stylish ringtone for our iPhone without wasting money in nonsense ways, like paying money for downloading and syncing ringtones via iTunes. When making our own ringtone for iPhone, both cracking iPhone and obtaining sound files are dead easy. The real hard nuts to crack are how to convert audio source to iPhone ringtone format, and how to put ringtones to iPhone, since Apple will update its iTunes software and iPhone firmware whenever a newly discovered loophole gets published on internet.
Last time, on YouTube, I saw someone use iTunes to convert music to AAC (*.m4a), and change the extension name of these AAC music file to *.m4r in Windows Explorer, so as to drag-drop the files to the iTunes Ringtones playlist, and put the music to iPhone. Now, it's definitely unfeasible since the loophole has been walled up immediately.
After searching a whole day on Google, I finally got two applications, irrelative but inter-compensative, to accomplish the single mission. The first is iBrickr version 0.91, free software, which can send sound files (M4A, M4P, MP3, MOV and WAV) to iPhone ringtones folder, but neither can send other audio files correctly, nor edit audio files. The second is Xilisoft Video Converter Ultimate 5, which can convert video to audio, audio to audio with abundant compatible formats, as well as edit audio files.
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1, in the folder mentioned above, delete the extension names of the sound files (.m4a, .m4p, .mp3, .mov and .wav). Otherwise, when sent to iPhone, an extension name will be attached to the ringtone name in the ringtone list. By the way, make sure there are only western characters in the file names, otherwise the ringtones cannot play properly, and the filenames cannot show correctly.
2, run iBrickr, and select sound file to send.
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By the way, I also tried iPhone Ringtone Maker, only free for 3 trials. Although it can quickly make a 30 seconds ringtone and send to my iPhone directly, the ringtone sent can just last for few seconds. I don't know why.
I bought my mom another iPhone about a week before this Mother's Day. I cracked it, and made some unique and melodious ringtones for the iPhone and put music on the iPhone in the same way. My mom really likes the gift. Although she doesn't know how to use iTunes, her son can help without iTunes. Apple charges us $1 for a song though its iTunes store, plus an extra $1 to convert that song into a ringtone, but I can do that with any sound file, even created by myself, free of charge.
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The relative difficulties of men's and women's fashion
Both men and women can have the difficulties of maintaining their clothing up-to-date and in time, yet men's fashion often seems a lot simpler. Of program, for both sexes, clothes and fashion choices could be quite as intricate, and there are lots of'fashionable'items that can rapidly become fashion faux pas - who will say they frequently see people running around in 70s flames? On the other hand, men's style includes a few choice goods that will exist eternally - which man is likely to watch out of place with a good-quality, tailored suit, for example? Pick traditional pieces, colors and fabrics and you'll never seem out-of-place.
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